Class-9 History SST Forest society and Colonialism

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

Q.1. Who were the colonial power in Indonesia?

(a) British (b) Dutch
(c) French (d) Portuguese

Q.2. Which place is now famous as a rice-producing island in Indonesia?

(a) Java (b) Sumatra (c) Borneo (d) Kalimantan

Q.3. Where did the Dutch start forest management in Indonesia?

(a) Java (b) Sumatra (c) Bali (d) None of the above

Q.4. Who were ‘Kalangs’ of Java?

(a) Dynasty of rulers (b) Skilled forest cutters and shifting cultivators

Q.5 The Kalangs resisted the Dutch in

(a) 1700 (b) 1750 (c) 1770 (d) 1800

Q.6. According to the forest laws enacted by the Dutch in Java,

(a) Villagers’ access to forest was restricted

(b) Wood could be cut only for specified purposes like making river boats or constructing houses

(d) All the above

Q.7. What was the system of ‘blandongdiensten’?

(a) A system of education (b) Industrialisation

Q.8. What did Surontiko Samin of Randublatung village, a teak forest village, begin questioning?

(a) The foreign policy of the Dutch (b) State ownership of the forest

Q.9. What was the policy followed by the British in India towards forests during the First and the Second World Wars?

(a) The forest department cut trees freely to meet British war needs

(b) Cutting of trees was strictly prohibited for everyone, including the British

(d) None of the above

Q.10. What is the goal of governments across Asia and Africa since the 1980s?

(a) Conservation of forests (b) Collection of timber

Q.11. Who wrote the book ‘The Forests of India’ in the year 1923?

(a) David Spurr (b) E.P. Stebbing (c) Verrier Elvin (d) John Middleton

12. Which of the following is not associated with Sweden agriculture?

(a) Karacha (b) Jhum (c) Bewar (d) Penda

13. Indian Forest Service was set up in the year:

(a) 1865 (b) 1864 (c) 1854 (d) 1884

14. Which of the following was not a tribal community?

(a) Karacha (b) Jhum (c) Korava (d) Yerukula

15. The system of scientific forestry stands for:
(a)System whereby the local farmers were allowed to cultivate temporarily within a plantation
(b) System of cutting old trees and plant new ones
(c) Division of forest into three categories
(d) Disappearance of forests

16. In which year the Baster rebellion took place?

17. In South-East Asia shifting agriculture is known as:

(A) Chitemene (b) Tavy (c) Lading (d) Milpa

18. The Gond forest community belongs to which of the following

(a) Chhattisgarh (b) Jharkhand (c) Jammu and Kashmir (d) Gujarat

19. Forests consisting of which type of trees were preferred by the Forest Department?

(a) Forests having trees which provided fuel, fodder and leaves

(b) Forests having soft wood

20. Which of the following term is not associated with shifting agriculture in India?

(a) Penda (b) Bewar (c) Khandad (d) Lading

21. Which of the following is a community of skilled forest cutters?

(a) Maasais of Africa (b) Mundas of Chotanagpur

22. Why did the government decide to ban shifting cultivation?

(a) To grow trees for railway timber

(b) When a forest was burnt, there was the danger of destroying valuable timber

(d) All the above reasons

23. Wooden planks lay across railway tracks to hold these tracks in a position are called:

(a) Beams (b) Sleepers (c) Rail fasteners (d) none of these

24. Which of the following was the most essential for the colonial trade and movement of goods?

(a) Roadways (b) Railways (c) Airways (d) River ways

25. Which of the following is a commercial crop?

(a) Rice (b) Wheat (c) Cotton (d) Maize

KEY TO MCQ

Q.1(b) Q.2 (a) Q.3(a) Q.4(b) Q5(c) Q(d) Q.7(c) Q.8(b) Q.9(b) Q.10(a) Q.11(b) Q.12(a) Q.13(b) Q.14(b)

Q.15(b) Q.16(a)Q17(c) Q18(a)Q.19(c) Q.20(d) Q21(d) Q.22(b) Q.23(b) Q.24(b)Q.25(c)

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

Q.1 what is deforestation? Why is it considered harmful?

Ans.1 The disappearance of forests is referred to as deforestation. Forests are cleared for industrial uses, cultivation, pastures and fuel wood.

2. Clearing of forests is harmful as forests give us manythings like paper, wood that makes our desks, tables, doors and windows, dyes that colour our clothes, spices in our food, gum, honey, coffee, tea and rubber. They are the home of animals and birds.

3. Forests check soil erosion and denudation, sand dunes. They preserve our ecological diversity and life support systems.

Q.2. Describe scientific forestry.

Ans.1. In scientific forestry, natural forests which had lots of different types of trees were cut down. In their place one type of tree was planted in straight rows. This is called a plantation.

2. Forest officials surveyed the forests, estimated the area under different types of trees and made working plans for forest management. They planned how much of the plantation area to cut every year.

3. The area cut was then to be replanted so that it was ready to be cut again in some years.

Q.3. Mention the various uses of forests

Ans. 1.Forests give us a mixture of things to satisfy our different needs — fuel, fodder, leaves, trees suitable for building ships or railways, trees that can provide hard wood.

2. Forest products like roots, fruits, tubers, herbs are used for medicinal purposes, wood for agricultural implements like yokes, ploughs etc. Forests provide shelter to animals and birds. They also add moisture to atmosphere. Rainfall is trapped in forest lands.

Q.4. What is shifting agriculture? Why was it regarded as harmful by the British?

Ans. 1.Shifting agriculture or Sweden agriculture is a traditional agricultural practice in many parts of Asia, Africa and South America. It has many local names such as ‘lading’ in South-EastAsia, ‘milpa’ in central America, ‘chitemene’ or ‘tavy’ in Africa, ‘chena’ in Sril Lanka, dhya, Penda, bewar, nevad, jhum, podu, khandad and kumri in India.

2.In shifting cultivation, parts of a forest are cut and burnt in rotation, seeds are sown in ashes after the first monsoon rains and the crop is harvested by October-November. Such plots are cultivated for a couple of years and then left fallow for 12 to 18 years for the forest to grow back.

It was regarded as harmful by the British for the forests. They felt that land which was used for cultivation every few years could not grow trees for railway timber. When the forest was burnt there was the danger of the flames spreading and burning valuable timber.

Q.5. Explain why did the Dutch adopt the ‘scorched earth policy’ during the war.

Ans.1. The First World War and Second World War had a major impact on forests. In India, working places were abandoned and trees were cut freely to meet British demand for war needs.

2.In Java, just before the Japanese occupied the region, the Dutch followed the ‘scorched earth policy’ destroying saw mills, burning huge piles of giant teak logs so that they could not fall into Japanese hands.

Q.6. How did the forest rules affect cultivation?

Ans. 1.One of the major impacts of European colonialism was on the practice of shifting cultivation or Jhoom cultivation .In shifting cultivation, a clearing is made in the forest, usually on the slopes of the hills. After the trees are cut, they are burnt to provide ashes. The seeds are then scattered in the area, and left to be irrigated by the rain.

2. Shifting cultivation was harmful for forests and the land both.

3. It also made it harder for the Government to calculate taxes. Therefore, the government decided to ban shifting cultivation.

Q.7. Why did land under cultivation increase during colonial rule?

Ans.1. during the British domination of India, the British encouraged the cultivation of cash crops such as jute, indigo, cotton, etc. Food crops were also required to be grown for food. Both things were important. 2.Secondly, the forests were considered unproductive by the British government and hence large areas of forests were cleared for agriculture. Now this forest land could be cultivated to enhance the income of this state.

Q.8. What did Dietrich Brandis suggest for the improvement of forests in India?

Ans. 1.Dietrich Brandis suggested that a proper system had to be followed. Felling of trees and grazing land had to be protected. Rules about use of forests should be made. Anyone who broke rules needed to be punished. Brandis set up in 1864 the Indian Forest Service. He also helped to formulate the Indian Forest Act of 1865.

Q.9. What was taught at the Imperial Forest Research Institute? How was this system carried out?

Ans. 1.Scientific forestry was taught at the Imperial Forest Research Institute. In this system, natural forests which had a variety of trees were cut down and, instead, one type of tree was planted.

2. Appointed forest officials managed these forests. They planned and assessed how much of the planted area had to be cut down and how much had to be replanted.

Q.10. Differentiate between the customary practice of hunting and hunting as a sport in India, after the Forest Acts were passed. Ans. Before the laws were passed, people who depended on forests hunted birds and small animals for food. After the laws were passed, hunting of big game became a sport. Under colonial rule the scale of hunting increased so much that many species became extinct. Rewards were given for killing tigers, wolves, etc., on the pretext that they were a threat to human life. Certain areas of the forests were reserved for hunting.

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS [5 MARKS]

Q.1. Discuss the rise of commercial forestry under the colonial governments.

Ans.1. Commercial forestry became important during the British rule. By the early nineteenth century oak forests in England were disappearing. This created a problem of shortage of timber supply for the Navy.

2. How could English ships be built without a regular supply of strong and durable timber?How could imperial power be protected and maintained without ships?

3. Because of the factors given above, before 1856 the commercial forestry was considered important in India. By the 1820s, search parties were sent to explore the forest resources ofIndia.

4. These parties gave them green signal for commercial forestry in India.Within a decade trees were being felled on a massive scale and large quantities of timber were being exported from India.

5. The spread of railway from the 1850s created a new demand. In India, the colonial government felt that

railways were essential for effective internal administration, for colonial trade, for the quick movement of imperial troops.

Q.2. “The introduction of extremely exploitatives and oppressive policies proved to be a disaster.” With reference to Bastar —

(a) What were these policies? (b) What were the consequences of these policies?

Ans. (a) The colonial government proposed to reserve two-thirds of the forest in 1905 and stop shifting cultivation, hunting and collection of forest produce. The people of Baster were very worried. Some villages were allowed to remain on in the reserved forests on the condition that they worked free for the forest department in cutting and transporting trees and protecting the forests from fires. Subsequently these came to be known as forest villages. People of other villages were displaced without any notice or compensation. For long the villagers had been suffering from increased land rents and frequent demands for free labour and goods by colonial officials. Then came the terrible famines in 1899-1900 and again in 1907-1908. Reservations proved to be the last straw.

(b) People began to gather and discuss these issues in their village councils, in bazars and at festivals or wherever the headmen and priests of several villages were assembled. The initiative was taken by the Dhruvas of the Kanger forest, where reservation first took place.Although there was no single leader, many people speak of Gunda Dhur from villageNethanar as an important figure in the movement in 1910 mango boughs, a limp of earth, chillies and arrows, began circulating between villages. These were actually messages inviting villagers to rebel against the British.Every village contributed something to the rebellion expenses. Bazars were looted, the houses of officials and traders, schools and police stations were burnt and robbed and grain redistributed.

The British sent troops to suppress the rebellion. The adivasi leaders tried to negotiate, but the British surrounded their camps and fired upon them. After that they marched through the villages, flogging and punishing those who had taken part in the rebellion.It took three months for the British to regain control. However, they never managed to capture Gunda Dhur. In a major victory for the rebels, work on reservation was temporarily suspended and the area to be reserved was reduced to roughly that planned before 1910. Were forcibly displaced from their homes in the forests. Some had to change occupations, while some resisted through large and small rebellions.

Q.5. How did the following contribute towards the decline of forest cover in India between1880-1920

(a) Railways and shipbuilding (b) Commercial farming

Ans. (a) (1) Railways: The spread of railways from 1850s created a new demand. Railways were essential for successful colonial control, administration, trade and movement of troops. Thus to run locomotives, (a) wood was needed as fuel (b) and to lay railway lines as sleepers were essential to hold tracks together. As the railway tracks spread throughout India, larger and larger number of trees were felled. Forests around the railway tracks started disappearing fast.

(2) Shipbuilding: UK had the largest colonial empire in the world. Shortage of oak forests created a great timber problem for the shipbuilding of England. For the RoyalNavy, large wooden boats, ships, courtyards for shipping etc., trees from Indian forests were being felled on massive scale from the 1820s or 1830s to export large quantities of timber from India. Thus the forest cover of the subcontinent declined rapidly.

(b) Commercial Farming: Large areas of natural forest were also cleared to make space for the plantations or commercial farming. Jute, rubber, indigo, tobacco etc. were the commercial crops that were planted to meet Britain’s growing need for these commodities.The British colonial government took over the forests and gave of a vast area and exportedit to Europe. Large areas of forests were cleared on the hilly slopes to plant tea or coffee.

This also contributed to the decline of the forest cover in India.

Q.6. How was colonial management of forests in Bastar similar to that of Java?

Ans. The colonial government imposed new forest laws according to which two-thirds of the forests were reserved. Shifting cultivation, hunting and collection of forest produce was banned. Most people in forest villages were displaced without notice or compensation. In the same way, when the Dutch gained control over the forests in Java, they enacted forest laws, restricting villagers' access to forests. Now wood could only be cut for specific purposes and from specific forests under close supervision. Villagers were punished for grazing cattle, transporting wood without a permit or travelling on forest road with horse-carts or cattle. This was the similarity between the British (in Bastar) and Dutch (in Java) management of forests.

Q.7. What new trends and developments have affected the forestry of today?

Ans. 1.Since the 1980s governments across Asia and Africa have begun to see that scientific forestry and the policy of keeping forest communities away from forests has resulted in many conflicts.Conservation of forests rather than collecting timber has become a more important goal.

2. The government has realised/recognised that in order to meet this goal, the people who live near the forests must be involved.

3. In many cases, across India, from Mizoram to Kerala, dense forests have survived only because villagers protected them in sacred groves known as sarnas, Devarakudu, kau, rai etc. Some villages have been patrolling

their own forests, with each household taking it in turns, instead of leaving it to the forest guards.Local forest communities and environmentalists today are thinking of different forms of forest management.

Q.8. Where is Bastar located? Discuss its history and its people

Ans.1. Bastar is situated in the southern part of Chhattisgarh and borders Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra. The river Indrawati flows from east to west across Bastar. The central part ofBastar is a plateau. To the north of this plateau is the Chhattisgarh plain and to its south is the Godavari plain.

2. The people of Bastar believe that each village was bestowed land by the earth and hence they offer something in return during agricultural celebrations. Apart from the earth the people of Bastar show reverence to the spirits of rivers, forests and the mountains.

3. Different communities such as Maria and Muria Gonds, Dhurwas, Bhatras and Halbas practise common customs and beliefs but speak different dialects. Each village is well aware of its boundaries. They look after and preserve their natural resources.

4.There exists a give and take relationship among the communities. If a village wants some forest produce from another village a small price is paid before taking it. This price is called ‘dhand’ or ‘man’ or ‘devsari’.Villagers engage watchmen to look after their forests for a price.

5. This price is collected from all the families. There is a large annual gathering — a big hunt where the headmen of all the villages in a ‘pargana’ (a group of villages) meet and discuss matters that concern them.

Q.9. Discuss the new developments in forestry after the 1980s.

Ans: 1. Since the 1980s the governments of Asia and Africa have begun to see that scientific forestry and the policy of keeping forest communities away from the forests has resulted in many conflicts. Conservation and preservation of forests have become the major goal.

2. Collection of timber is a secondary objective. The governments emphasise that in order to conserve and preserve forests the involvement of people is important.

3.These are perfect examples to quote here — across India, from Mizoram to Kerala, dense forests have survived only because villagers protected them in sacred groves known as 'sarnas', 'devarakudu', 'kan', 'rai', etc. Some villagers have been patrolling their own forests, with each household taking it in turns, today are thinking of different forms of forest management.

Q.10. Why did the people of Bastar rise in revolt against the British? Explain.

Ans. (i) In 1905, the colonial government imposed laws to reserve two-thirds of the forests, stop shifting cultivation, hunting and collection of forest produce. People of many villages were displaced without any notice or compensation.

(ii) For long, villagers had been suffering from increased land rents and frequent demands for free labour and goods by colonial officials.

(iii) The terrible famines in 1899–1900 and again in 1907–1908 made the life of people miserable. They blamed the colonial rule for their sorry plight.

(iv) The initiative of rebellion was taken by the Dhurwas of the Kanger forest, where reservation first took place. Gunda Dhur was an important leader of the rebellion.

HOTS

Q.1. How did the local people look after and protect the forests in Bastar region?

Ans. 1.The people of Bastar showed respect to the spirits of the river, the forest and the mountain.Since each village knew its boundary the local people loked after all the natural resources within their boundary.

2. If the people from a village wanted to take some wood from forests of another village, they paid a small fee called 'devsari,' 'dand' or 'man' in exchange.

3. Some villagers also protected their forests by engaging watchmen and each household contributed some grain to pay them. 4.Every year there was one big hunt where the headman of villages in a 'pargana' met and discussed issues of concern, including forests

Q.2. How did the new forest laws affect the forest dwellers?

Ans.1. Foresters and villagers had very different ideas of what a good forest should look like.Villagers wanted forests with a mixture of species to satisfy different needs — fuel, fodder, leaves. The forest department wanted trees which were suitable for building ships or railways.

2. They needed trees that could provide hard wood and were tall and straight. So particular species like teak and

sal were promoted and others were cut. The new forest laws meant severe hardship for villagers across the country.

3. After the Act (Forest Act), all their everyday practices, cutting wood for their houses, grazing their cattle, collecting fruits and roots, hunting and fishing became illegal. People were now forced to steal wood from the forests, and if they were caught they were at the mercy of the forest guards who would take bribes from them.

Q.4. How did the transformation in the forest management during the colonial period affect the following?

(a) Pastoral communities (b) Shifting cultivators

Ans.1. The British required Indian forests in order to build ships and for railways. The British were worried that the use of forest by local people and the reckless felling of trees by traders would destroy forest.

2. Therefore the colonial government decided to invite a German expert DietrichBrandis for advice and made him the first Inspector General of Forests in India.Dietrich Brandis realised that a proper system had to be introduced to manage the forests and people had to be trained in the science of conservation. Rules about the use of forest resources had to be framed.

3. Felling of trees and grazing had to be restricted so that forests in India could be preserved for timber production.The changes in forest management in the colonial period affected the following groups of people.

(a) Pastoral communities: Pastoral communities were affected by the new forest laws.

Before these laws came into force, the people of pastoral as well as nomadic community had survived by hunting deer, partridges and a variety of small animals. This customary practice was prohibited by the forest laws. Those who were caught hunting were now punished for poaching. Some of them began to be called criminal tribes and were forced to work in factories, mines and plantations under government supervision.

(b) Shifting cultivators:1 One of the major impacts of European colonialism was on the practice of shifting cultivation or Jhoom agriculture. This is a traditional agricultural practice in several parts of Asia, Africa and South America. 2.European foresters regarded the practice of shifting cultivation as harmful for the forests.

They felt that land which was used for cultivation every few years could not grow trees for railway timber. When a forest was burnt, there was the added danger of the flames spreading and burning valuable timber.Shifting cultivation also made it harder for the British government to calculate taxes. So the colonial government decided to ban shifting cultivation. As a result, shifting cultivators were forcibly displaced from their homes in the forests. Some had to change occupations, while some resisted through large and small rebellions.

Q.5 Describe four provisions of the Forest Act of 1878.

Ans. (i) The Forest Act of 1878 divided forests into three categories: reserved, protected and village forests.

(ii) The best forests were called 'reserved forests'.

(iii) Villagers could not take anything from reserved forests, even for their own use.

(iv) For house building or fuel, they could take wood from protected or village forests.

Forest society and Colonialism NCERT Class-9 History Extra Questions

Question-1
Mention a few products that are got from forest.
Solution:
Forests provide us with innumerable products. Forest trees provide wood or timber as it is called. We make furniture, like tables and chairs from wood. Wood is also used to make doors and windows. Paper is made from wood pulp. Forests are a store –house for many herbs which are used as medicine. We get gum and rubber from forest trees. Rubber is a very important industrial raw material. So it is our duty to protect forests.
Question-2
What is Deforestation?
Solution:
The cutting down and clearing of the forests is referred to as deforestation. Deforestation is an age old practice. It started many centuries ago.
During the period of industrialization, forests were cleared for industries to flourish. Deforestation took place to expand cultivation. Deforestation brought a lot of ecological changes in our planet. During the colonial rule it became more systematic and extensive.
Question-3
What are ‘ railway sleepers’? How many sleepers are required for 1 mile of railway track?

Solution:
Railway Sleepers are wooden planks laid across railway tracks; they hold the tracks in position . Between 1,760 and 2,000 sleepers are needed to lay 1 mile of railway track . A single sleeper is approximately 10 feet by 10 inches by 5 inches that is 3.5 cubic feet. Wood for these sleepers came mainly from the Sind Forests. As the railway was fast expanding, there was need for more and more trees to be cut. In the Madras Presidency alone, 35,000 trees were cut annually for making sleepers.
Question-4
Mention a few commercial crops. Why are they called so?
Solution:
Jute, sugar, wheat and cotton are called commercial crops. These crops are used in industries as raw material, so they are called commercial crops. Cotton is used in the manufacture of textiles. Sugar is used to make chocolates and various other confectionery products. Wheat, like sugar is used in the confectionery industry, with biscuits and bread being the major product.
Question-5
Why did Britain turn to India for timber supply for its Royal Navy?
Solution:
The disappearance of the oak forests in England, created problems in timber supply for the Royal Navy. The Royal Navy could not survive without a regular supply of timber. So, the British started their search in all the colonial countries for a regular supply of timber. Their search resulted in the cutting down forests in India. Within a decade, a large amount of timber was exported from India.
Question-6
Write a note on Dietrich Brandis.
Solution:
Dietrich Brandis was a German National and an expert in forest development. The British invited him to India , to seek his advise and he was made the first Inspector General of Forests in India, as the indiscriminate felling of trees worried the British .
Mr. Brandis thought that there should be some proper system to manage forests and the people have to be trained in scientific conservation. They restricted cutting of forest trees and grazing. Anybody who cut trees without permission was punished.
Mr. Brandis set up the Indian Forest Service in 1864. He also formulated the Indian Forest Act in 1865. The Imperial Forest Research Institute was set up at Dehradun in 1906. Mr. Brandis introduced the method of Scientific forestry. In this method, instead of different types of trees, only one type of tree is planted. Every year specific areas of the forest are cut and it is replanted. The trees are cut again after they grow.
The amendment to the Indian Forests Act , implemented by Mr. Brandis was enforced in 1878 . According to this amendment the forests were divided into three categories – reserved, protected and village forests.
Villagers were not happy with the Forest act that promoted only particular species like teak and sal which were needed for hard wood, as they were tall and straight. Villagers who use forest products like roots, leaves and fruits wanted forests with a mixture of species to satisfy different needs like fuel, fodder and food.
Question-7
Where and when was the Imperial Forest Research Institute set up ?
Solution:
The Imperial Forest Research Institute was set up at Dehradun in 1906.
Question-8
Write a brief note about the geographical location of Bastar.
Solution:
Bastar is located in the southernmost part of Chhattisgarh. It is surrounded by Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and Maharashtra. The central part of Bastar is situated on a plateau. Chhattisgarh plain and the Godavari Plains are to the north and south of the plateau, respectively. The river Indrawati passes through Bastar from east to west.
Question-9
Give a brief account of the people of Bastar.
Solution:
The people of Bastar belonged to different communities such as Maria and Muria Gonds, Dhurwas, Bhatras and Halbas. Though they spoke different languages they shared common customs and beliefs. The people of Bastar believed that the Earth was sacred and made offerings during agricultural festivals. In addition to the Earth, they respected the spirits of the river, the forest and the mountain.
The boundaries of each village was well marked and the people looked after all the natural resources within that boundary. If people from one village wanted to take some wood from the forests of another village, they paid a small fee called devsari, dand or man in exchange. Some villages protected their forests by engaging watchmen and each household had to contribute some grain to pay them.
Every year a big meeting is organised, where the headmen of villages meet and discuss issues of concern, including forests.
Question-10
What was Samin’s Challenge?
Solution:
Surontiko Samin belonged to the Randublatung village in Java. The Randublatung village was a teak forest village. Samin challenged the Dutch saying that the state had not created the wind, water, earth and wood, so it could not own it.
Samin’s Challenge developed into a widespread movement. Samin was supported by his family members. Soon 3000 families followed his ideology and protested against the forest laws of the Dutch, by lying down on their land when the Dutch came to survey it. Many other villagers refused to pay taxes or fines . Some of them even refused to work for the Dutch in cutting trees.
Question-11
What are the New Developments in Forestry ?
Solution:
Environmentalists have realised the need for ecological balance . Conservation of forests is now seen as an important requirement than growing trees for timber. In order to conserve forests the people living near the forests have to be involved. In India dense forests have survived only because villages protected them in sacred groves known as sarnas, devarakudu, kan and rai. Villages patrol their own forests, with each household taking turns to do it. They do not leave it to the forest guards.
Local forest communities and environmentalists today are thinking of different forms of forest management and conservation.

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Class-9 History SST Forest society and Colonialism

Class-9 History SST Forest society and Colonialism

Forest society and Colonialism NCERT Class-9 History Extra Questions

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